Incredible Horizons: New Brain Research

http://www.incrediblehorizons.com/brain-plasticity.html#Brain%20state

Incredible Horizons: New Brain Research

Brain Plasticity- The good news is that: The brain is can repair itself through specific appropriate input through the senses. If you feel like you have "faulty wiring", we can help your brain function more efficiently. Scientists apply the term neuro-plasticity or brain plasticity to the action of brain growth and adaptation in response to challenge. Advanced Brain Technologies views the brain as being malleable and plastic. As it receives specific appropriate input through the senses, with appropriate frequency, intensity and duration the brain physically changes its structure. This structural change takes place through the growth of pathways between the brain cells (neurons). Once the structure of the brain changes the function of the human being begins to change. Therefore, brain structure determines the level of human function. The neurosciences provide us with research that proves this correct. (Advanced Brain Technologies has designed The Listening Program, Brain Builder, and the Sound Health Series that we use and promote in our center.) Unique Logic and Technologies (creator of our neuro-educational feedback system) teaches that provided the correct challenge and environment, children and adults frequently compensate (shift brain function from one area to another) when a certain area of the brain cannot function correctly. It is documented in many medical and neurological journals that the brain will increase activity in another region to overcome loss of another region. UCLA pediatric neurologist Dr. Donald Shields states, "If there's a way to compensate, the developing brain will find it”. There is no question that the brain can compensate even if it has problems focusing attention. However, it has to be provided the correct environment prompting challenge. These concepts change old thinking in several areas of brain development. Our products produce better grades with less effort for every subject the rest of their life

Old Thinking Early childhood experiences have little impact on later development Brain development is linear: the brain’s capacity to learn and change grows steadily as an infant matures into adulthood The genes that you are born with determine how your brain develops A toddler’s brain is much less active than the brain of a college student New Thinking Early experiences have a decisive impact on the architecture of the brain & the nature and extent of adult capacities Brain development is non-linear: there are optimum times for acquiring different kinds of knowledge and skills Brain development is dependant on the interplay between the genes that you were born with and the experiences that you have. By the age of three, their brains are twice as active as those of an adult. Activity drops off in adolescence. A secure relationship with primary caregiver creates a favorable context for development and learning Brain growth and development lessens with age Early interactions not only create the context, they directly affect the way the brain is “wired” The brain grows and continues development through death- provided the right conditions are met.

Science has repeatedly demonstrated that the brain can change and grow given the right learning tools and environment. Our programs are founded in educational cognitive psychology to provide the correct environment and challenge.Get Attention strives to provide the very best learning tools for the creation of a success based environment that will facilitate the maximization of personal potential. Our products from Unique Logic and Technology and Advanced Brain Technologies are only some of the products that use this research for training. Our cognitive training and light and sound manufactures have also built their products based on plasticity research. As recently as twenty years ago, scientists believed that the genes we were born with wholly determined the structure of our brains. However, current extensive research performed by scientists worldwide proves that how our brains develop, learn, and grow depends on the vital interaction between nature and nurture. Nature, or more accurately, genetic endowment, is directly affected by the environment, care, challenges, and teachings received (nurture). ADD, ADHD products, software for attention and memory, Attention & memory difficulties. Neural Networks Learning takes place by construction of new neural networks/pathways. Neural networks are the “whispering” of neurons to each other. Neurons are brain cells that communicate with each other via an electrochemical process that carries neurotransmitters across the division between the neurons (the synapse). Our five senses process information (external stimuli) and then select certain neural connections to become active. In the recent past, scientists believed this network building or neural activation to be deterministic - the genes you are born with would determine the networks that could develop. However, it has been proved that activation is a random selection among many possible neural connections that could occur. It is not something that happens by deterministic design. Brain related research continuously strives to deepen our understanding of brain functions. We have learned that new information (sensory input) enters the brain through preexisting networks, which is why it is imperative to provide challenging stimulation in early childhood. If the input is not new, it can trigger memory. If it is new, it can trigger learning thus creating new pathways. Cognitive psychology refers to this process as constructivism: The learner builds his or her own knowledge on his current knowledge base, but only in response to a challenge and/or new stimulation. It is evident that some persons are not born with the neural networks that facilitate focused attention. Our cognitive training, light and sound and neurofeedback programs are designed to directly challenge users to build new neural networks necessary for optimum performance. Our products that improve and spawn neural connections by increasing sensory input are our therapeutic music and light and sound programs. Our nutritional supplement (Attend) naturally improves the bodies ability to allow smooth, balanced information processing to obtain a focused attention and improved concentration. Attend also helps increase the flow of nutrients, oxygen and energy to the brain. They all have been heavily researched and have a consistent record of accomplishment in aiding their users to accomplish a level of optimum performance. Neural networks challenged/stimulated through our light and sound equipment, can enhance physical healing and homeostasis while increasing attentional flexibility. As early as the 1930’s, there was research showing that repetitive pulsing lights and percussive sounds will stimulate and synchronize the hemispheres of the brain. This creates a frequency following response known as entrainment. Through flickering lights and controlled rhythmic tones, we can entrain the brainwave frequencies into desired states of consciousness. With the relief of tension or resistance in the mind/body, the user becomes receptive to information and the ability to process and recall it. Once the balancing and stress reducing effects of the equipment become engrained, a user can then proceed to special applications to facilitate increased attention and concentration. Then learning rates and mental abilities frequently increase. Link to our home programs that help rebuild the brain Side by Side Comparison of Products and Problem Solving Chart Vaxa Supplements; the proven power of homeopathy Click on banner to purchase Vaxa's Attend Americas most complete supplement for processing, memory and attention difficulties Research related to ADHD Attention requires chemical balance, a focused brain state, and adequate processing skills. A deficiency in any of those areas will create a lack of attention. 12/03-Update-New Research has found physical markers in biochemical balance Some exciting recent research is beginning to uncover the biochemical and genetic changes found in ADHD and brain dysfunction: Low Neurotransmitters. According to a fascinating new theory from evolutionary medicine called the "reward deficiency syndrome," due to genetic defects some people do not produce sufficient neurotransmitters, particularly dopamine, in response to pleasure drives for eating, love, and reproduction. As a result they seek dopamine release and sensations of pleasure via junk foods and drugs, such as sugar, alcohol, cocaine, methamphetamine, heroin, nicotine, marijuana, and by compulsive activities, such as gambling, eating, sex, and risk taking behaviors (Comings et al. 2000). Other researchers support this theory, noting low levels of serotonin are linked to ADHD and are associated with increased aggression in humans and other animals (Mitsis et al. 2000). As we'll see below, nutritional and wellness strategies to increase these neurotransmitter levels naturally offer attractive treatment options for ADHD. Genetic Defects. Following the rewards deficiency syndrome theory and the fact that stimulant medications act primarily by altering levels of dopamine, numerous genetic studies of ADHD have looked at defects in genes that control dopamine receptors. One allele of the dopamine D2 receptor gene is associated with alcoholism, drug abuse, smoking, obesity, compulsive gambling, and several personality traits (Comings et al. 2000). Other researchers support these findings, suggesting that defects in dopamine receptors genes are implicated in ADHD (Sunohara et al. 2000). The only way to actually increase the level of neurotransmitters in patients suffering from neurotransmitter deficiency disease is by giving them the amino acids, vitamins, and minerals that the body needs to build neurotransmitters. Unlike neurotransmitters these things cross freely into the brain where the body converts them to neurotransmitters and actually increases the over all level of neurotransmitters in the deficient system. It is not possible to correct this by diet alone. The perfect diet for building neurotransmitters would involve eating protein in the amount found in 35 ounces of red meat each day or 18 eggs. 35 ounces of meat has 2,440 calories and would never keep a 140-pound female at 140 pounds. So we look to nutritional supplements for help. Our neuro-supplement Balance Formula 1 is the perfect supplement to help with this. Our entire product line is based on improving the basic functions of the brain. Improving the neuro-network and providing better neurotransmissions will increase the brains power to optimize performance and/or heal itself. Most of our products do this through stimulating new neuropathways. Balance Formula 1 provides a way to improve or speed up that process. It provides the nutrients that smooth out the functions of the brain for an overall sense of well being. Dr. Allerton recognized that in order for the brain to function properly and for the neurotransmitters in the brain to receive messages, the hypothalamus must be working correctly. It was his feeling that this was the cause of most of the so-called ADD, ADHD, compulsive behaviors, stress related anxiety, etc that was going on. If you are at a stand still or plateau with other therapies-ie. ABA, Floortime etc.-You have probably benefited all you can from that therapy until you improve how the brain actually functions. Programs like ABA and floortime can only be as effective as the current neurological construct allows them to be. The neuro-technology aspect of DLS Tomatis' will improve neurological functioning of the brain thus, maximizing the ability to learn. Furthermore, DLS Tomatis has proven itself to be the most refined and efficient Tomatis based program in today's market. Brain state research for the attentionally challenged Every thought, feeling, sensation, and level of awareness has a corresponding brain wave pattern. There are brainwaves that are considered slow brainwaves such as Delta, Theta, and Alpha and fast brainwaves’ like SMR and Beta. Here is a chart of to help explain brainwaves. Frequency of Mental States Description of Brainwave States Brainwaves SLOW WAVES DELTA: Sleep The ‘Sleep’ State 0.5-3(cps)cycles per second THETA: Inner reflection w/o much atten- The ‘Tuned-Out’ 4-7 (cps) tion focused on the outside world; Waves tuned out; drowsy ALPHA: Resting in a meditative & creative The ‘Daydreaming’ 8-11 (cps) state; daydreaming; inattentive Waves FAST WAVES SMR: Calm, not fidgeting, not impulsive, The ‘Calm’ Waves 12-15 (cps) not thinking about bodily sensation; Often externally aware; quietly alert BETA: Focused analytical, often externally The ‘Thinker’ Waves 16-20 (cps) oriented, intense thinking/processing Slow waves indicate daydreaming and fast waves indicate concentration in a normal person. When we are inattentive or daydreaming, our brains produce primarily slower brainwaves like theta and alpha. As we focus on a task like reading or listening, our brain engages and these slow waves ‘drop out’ with brain energy moving to the faster ‘thinker’ waves. Consequently, our brain ‘wakes up’ and becomes activated to process this information. The ADHD brain works differently. Research demonstrates that when an ADHD child tries to concentrate, the brain continues to produce even more slow wave activity leading to a state of under-activation or low arousal. Have you ever wondered why ADHD children can focus so intently on video games, TV, or things they are interested in, yet cannot focus on their schoolwork? I have. There is a theory called the low arousal theory. The ADHD individual produces excessive levels of Theta or “Slow Brainwave” patterns that act like a fog or filter. High levels of stimulation/physical activity penetrate through the fog activating attention. As a child is engaged in a stimulating activity, like playing a video game, there is enough stimulation present in the activity to penetrate through the slow wave ‘filter’ to activate arousal-directing attention. During a ‘low’ stimulation task like reading, doing homework or chores, there is not as much stimulation coming from the environment. Now there is not enough stimulation present in the activity to penetrate through the slow wave ‘filter’ to activate arousal, so it is almost impossible to direct attention. A low level of stimulation results in boredom. The boredom leads to increased activity. Children with ADHD are dependent on stimulation from the environment to direct attention – they are unable to self-regulate. If there is not sufficient stimulation present from the environment, these children seeks out or create stimulation around them. The child may become fidgety, restless, get out of their seat, talk to their neighbor…these activities are designed to increase stimulation to break out of this state of low arousal. Neurofeedback can help to actually assist an individual in changing, (controlling) physiological differences found in those suffering from ADD/ADHD. Everyone experiences this cycle to some degree. Can you recall an experience of eating lunch or dinner, then having to sit in a classroom or attend a meeting? As your metabolism begins to kick in, you get a bit drowsy and begin to daydream. You are beginning to produce more alpha brainwaves. Now as you are forced to sit there, the metabolism kicks in, your eyes become heavy, you are feeling so drowsy it is hard not to fall asleep. You are now producing more theta brainwaves. Because you are so drowsy and drifty, you are not as likely to receive and assimilate this information, as well as when you are in a more alert and wide awake state. You probably want to get up, move around, get a cup of coffee, – and do something to wake up! This is what happens to the ADHD child. As he sits there in a low stimulation environment, like a classroom, or doing homework or chores, the brain continues to produce slower brainwave activity. As theta increases, he becomes more inattentive and bored and then begins to self-stimulating. As the child becomes more fidgety, he/she gets out his/her seat, bothers a classmate – in an attempt to self-stimulate out of this low aroused state. His/Her brain is under stimulated- so he/she tries to create more stimulation to wake up! Neurofeedback is a popular self mastery tool that can help to actually assist an individual in voluntarily changing, (controlling) physiological differences found in those suffering from ADD/ADHD. Get Attention programs such as light and sound and therapeutic music help stimulate and maintain proper brain states for the attentionally challenged. The neurofeedback equipment can measure or monitor as to whether or not the techniques work for a particular user. Side by Side Comparison of Products and Problem Solving Chart Vanderbilt study could lead to understanding behavior By Colleen Creamer, ccreamer@nashvillecitypaper.com October 08, 2003 Vanderbilt University researchers have found a part of the brain that monitors the consequences of actions more than the actions themselves, a finding that could improve understanding of impulsive behavior. The study, published this month in Science magazine, could help doctors understand and treat disorders such as schizophrenia, obsessive-compulsive disorder and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. They could also lead to a better understanding of what is now broadly called “poor impulse control,” considered by some scientists to be the root of a certain kind of criminal behavior. Released, the study shows that a decision-making process in the brain may be more concerned about the consequences of an action than how hard the action is to produce. The part of the brain in question is the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Researchers found that part of the brain responds to discrepancies between a person’s intentions and what actually happens when actions are performed. The outcome is the latest in a series of experiments that may be at the root of understanding how the brain’s “executive function” monitors its own performance so that it can adjust behavior. Jeffrey Schall, Ingram Professor of Neuroscience and director of Vanderbilt’s Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, directed the study with doctoral student Shigehiko Ito, post-doctoral fellow Veit Stuphorn, and Joshua Brown, a research associate at Washington University. “The basic idea is you are asked to do something. In our case it was move the eyes, but it could be press a button or say a word,” Schall said. “You do it and do it and sometimes you are told to stop. You are correct if you withhold the movement. So it is a task that is designed exactly to study the control of actions.” Using Macaque monkeys and a reward system, Schall and his colleagues required the monkeys to inhibit a movement after their brains had begun preparing for it. The researchers successfully identified neurons that signaled discrepancies or errors but identified no neuron that signaled what the brain meant to do. Brown said that the end result is what drives the intention. “The broad question is, ‘How does the brain monitor and control intentional actions.’ Our research indicates that it does so by monitoring the consequences of such actions, not the actions themselves,” Brown said. One theory suggests the brain is sensitive to the conflict that comes from when a task is too difficult to perform without making errors. Some people may be more sensitive than other to this conflict and would, therefore, have an advantage in the decision-making process. For more info on healthy- drug free programs for successful living click on a link below Incredible Horizons Articles Loop ADHD / ADD Autism Information Loop Intro for Parents Understanding ADD/ADHD Life and Development with ADHD Progression of ADHD into adulthood Treating Attention Problems Autism Spectrum and TLP Dietary Needs / Suggestions Digestive Solutions ADD / ADHD- The Biochemical Approach Theanine-A safe & natural substitute for Ritalin, Adderall etc. Learning Disabilities and Social Skills Programs for ADD/ADHD & Autism Program Suggestions Rehab for Brain Injury ADD/ADHD & ASD-Autism Auditory Processing Disorder CAPD Bi-polar Disorder Adult Optimum Performance Sensory Integration Visual Processing Disorders Dyslexia & TLP Sharpening the aging mind Stress Busters Digestive Solutions What if I don't know what is wrong? Why our Programs work General Links Page Home | Return Policy | Site Map | General Links Page | Contact Us | Services | Services For Schools All material protected under copyright law and US. Trademark. Problems with this site should be e-mailed to Webmaster at ih2000@incrediblehorizons.com

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Images of the Human Brain and Stuff

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Einstein's Brain Above ~

http://www.answers.com/topic/albert-einstein-s-brain?cat=technology

Scientific studies

The lateral sulcus (Sylvian fissure) in a normal brain. In Einstein's brain, this was truncated.

Harvey found nothing unusual with Einstein's brain, which is of average size.

Study finding part of Einstein's brain missing and another part 15% larger

However, in 1999, further analysis by a team at McMaster University in Ontario revealed that his parietal operculum region in the inferior frontal gyrus in the frontal lobe of the brain was vacant. Also absent was part of a bordering region called the lateral sulcus (Sylvian fissure). Researchers at McMaster University speculated that the vacancy may have enabled neurons in this part of his brain to communicate better. "This unusual brain anatomy…(missing part of the Sylvian fissure)… may explain why Einstein thought the way he did," said Professor Sandra Witelson who led the research published in The Lancet. Einstein himself claimed that he thought through images rather than verbally. Professor Laurie Hall of Cambridge University commenting on the study, said, "To say there is a definite link is one bridge too far, at the moment. So far the case isn't proven. But magnetic resonance and other new technologies are allowing us to start to probe those very questions." ^[6]

Scientists are currently interested in the possibility that physical differences in brain structure could determine different abilities. ^{[7] [8]}One famous part of the operculum is Broca's area which plays an important role in speech production (see below for discussion relating to Einstein's difficulties with language). To compensate, the inferior parietal lobe was 15 percent wider than normal. ^[9] The inferior parietal region is responsible for mathematical thought, visuospatial cognition, and imagery of movement. Einstein's brain also contained 73 percent more glial cells than the average brain.

Study finding more glial cells in Einstein's brain

In the 1980s, University of California, Berkeley professor Marion C. Diamond persuaded Thomas Harvey to give her samples of Einstein's brain. She compared the ratio of glial cells in Einstein's brain with that in the preserved brains of 11 men. Her laboratory made thin sections of Einstein's brain, each 6 micrometers thick. They then used a microscope to count the cells. Einstein's brain had more glial cells relative to neurons in all areas studied, but only in the left inferior parietal area was the difference statistically significant. This area is part of the association cortex, regions of the brain responsible for incorporating and synthesizing information from multiple other brain regions. Diamond admits a limitation in her study is that she had only one Einstein to compare with 11 normal men. S. S. Kantha of the Osaka BioScience Institute in Japan criticized Diamond's study, as did Terence Hines of Pace University. ^[10]

Diamond and Joseph Altman (then of Purdue University) had already both discovered that rats with enriched environments developed more glial cells for each neuron. Rats in impoverished environments had fewer glial cells relative for each neuron. ^[11] A lifetime studying difficult mathematical and physical problems may have enriched Einstein's environment.

References

1. ^ http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4602913
2. ^ http://www.bioquant.com/gallery/einstein.html
3. ^ http://www.newhorizons.org/neuro/diamond_einstein.htm
4. ^ http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4602913
5. ^ http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4602913
6. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/371698.stm
7. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/371698.stm
8. ^ http://www.bioquant.com/gallery/einstein.html
9. ^ http://staff.washington.edu/sarawyck/Readings/brains.htm
10. ^ http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4602913
11. ^ http://www.newhorizons.org/neuro/diamond_einstein.htm

External links

• Relics: Einstein's Brain, a 1994 documentary by Kevin Hull
• "The Long, Strange Journey of Einstein's Brain", NPR special
• "Doctor kept Einstein's brain in jar 43 years"
• Why size mattered for Einstein
• Cortical Sulcal Maps in Autism
• Einstein and Newton 'had autism'
• Cortical Connectivity, Metarepresentation and the Social Brain.
• A Hands-On Approach to Studying the Brain, Even Einstein’s

Incredible Horizons New Brain Research http://www.incrediblehorizons.com/brain-plasticity.html

Brain Plasticity- The good news is that: The brain is can repair itself through specific appropriate input through the senses. If you feel like you have "faulty wiring", we can help your brain function more efficiently. Scientists apply the term neuro-plasticity or brain plasticity to the action of brain growth and adaptation in response to challenge. Advanced Brain Technologies views the brain as being malleable and plastic. As it receives specific appropriate input through the senses, with appropriate frequency, intensity and duration the brain physically changes its structure. This structural change takes place through the growth of pathways between the brain cells (neurons). Once the structure of the brain changes the function of the human being begins to change. Therefore, brain structure determines the level of human function. The neurosciences provide us with research that proves this correct. (Advanced Brain Technologies has designed The Listening Program, Brain Builder, and the Sound Health Series that we use and promote in our center.) Unique Logic and Technologies (creator of our neuro-educational feedback system) teaches that provided the correct challenge and environment, children and adults frequently compensate (shift brain function from one area to another) when a certain area of the brain cannot function correctly. It is documented in many medical and neurological journals that the brain will increase activity in another region to overcome loss of another region. UCLA pediatric neurologist Dr. Donald Shields states, "If there's a way to compensate, the developing brain will find it”. There is no question that the brain can compensate even if it has problems focusing attention. However, it has to be provided the correct environment prompting challenge. These concepts change old thinking in several areas of brain development. Our products produce better grades with less effort for every subject the rest of their life

Old Thinking Early childhood experiences have little impact on later development Brain development is linear: the brain’s capacity to learn and change grows steadily as an infant matures into adulthood The genes that you are born with determine how your brain develops A toddler’s brain is much less active than the brain of a college student New Thinking Early experiences have a decisive impact on the architecture of the brain & the nature and extent of adult capacities Brain development is non-linear: there are optimum times for acquiring different kinds of knowledge and skills Brain development is dependant on the interplay between the genes that you were born with and the experiences that you have. By the age of three, their brains are twice as active as those of an adult. Activity drops off in adolescence. A secure relationship with primary caregiver creates a favorable context for development and learning Brain growth and development lessens with age Early interactions not only create the context, they directly affect the way the brain is “wired” The brain grows and continues development through death- provided the right conditions are met.

Science has repeatedly demonstrated that the brain can change and grow given the right learning tools and environment. Our programs are founded in educational cognitive psychology to provide the correct environment and challenge. Get Attention strives to provide the very best learning tools for the creation of a success based environment that will facilitate the maximization of personal potential. Our products from Unique Logic and Technology and Advanced Brain Technologies are only some of the products that use this research for training. Our cognitive training and light and sound manufactures have also built their products based on plasticity research. As recently as twenty years ago, scientists believed that the genes we were born with wholly determined the structure of our brains. However, current extensive research performed by scientists worldwide proves that how our brains develop, learn, and grow depends on the vital interaction between nature and nurture. Nature, or more accurately, genetic endowment, is directly affected by the environment, care, challenges, and teachings received (nurture). ADD, ADHD products, software for attention and memory, Attention & memory difficulties. Neural Networks Learning takes place by construction of new neural networks/pathways. Neural networks are the “whispering” of neurons to each other. Neurons are brain cells that communicate with each other via an electrochemical process that carries neurotransmitters across the division between the neurons (the synapse). Our five senses process information (external stimuli) and then select certain neural connections to become active. In the recent past, scientists believed this network building or neural activation to be deterministic - the genes you are born with would determine the networks that could develop. However, it has been proved that activation is a random selection among many possible neural connections that could occur. It is not something that happens by deterministic design. Brain related research continuously strives to deepen our understanding of brain functions. We have learned that new information (sensory input) enters the brain through preexisting networks, which is why it is imperative to provide challenging stimulation in early childhood. If the input is not new, it can trigger memory. If it is new, it can trigger learning thus creating new pathways. Cognitive psychology refers to this process as constructivism: The learner builds his or her own knowledge on his current knowledge base, but only in response to a challenge and/or new stimulation. It is evident that some persons are not born with the neural networks that facilitate focused attention. Our cognitive training, light and sound and neurofeedback programs are designed to directly challenge users to build new neural networks necessary for optimum performance. Our products that improve and spawn neural connections by increasing sensory input are our therapeutic music and light and sound programs. Our nutritional supplement (Attend) naturally improves the bodies ability to allow smooth, balanced information processing to obtain a focused attention and improved concentration. Attend also helps increase the flow of nutrients, oxygen and energy to the brain. They all have been heavily researched and have a consistent record of accomplishment in aiding their users to accomplish a level of optimum performance. Neural networks challenged/stimulated through our light and sound equipment, can enhance physical healing and homeostasis while increasing attentional flexibility. As early as the 1930’s, there was research showing that repetitive pulsing lights and percussive sounds will stimulate and synchronize the hemispheres of the brain. This creates a frequency following response known as entrainment. Through flickering lights and controlled rhythmic tones, we can entrain the brainwave frequencies into desired states of consciousness. With the relief of tension or resistance in the mind/body, the user becomes receptive to information and the ability to process and recall it. Once the balancing and stress reducing effects of the equipment become engrained, a user can then proceed to special applications to facilitate increased attention and concentration. Then learning rates and mental abilities frequently increase. Link to our home programs that help rebuild the brain Side by Side Comparison of Products and Problem Solving Chart

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~The Cosmic-Visions Blog~

http://cosmic-visions.blogspot.com/

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Pictures

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~The Cosmic-Visions Blog~

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Central Nervous Sysem+: Encyclopedia Britannica

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human nervous system

Encyclopædia Britannica Article

			Page 1 of 122

The central nervous system receives sensory information from the peripheral nervous system and …
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

system that conducts stimuli from sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord and that conducts impulses back to other parts of the body. As with other higher vertebrates, the human nervous system has two main parts: the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (the nerves that carry impulses to and from the central nervous system). In humans the brain is especially large and well developed.

Prenatal and postnatal development of the human nervous system

Almost all nerve cells, or neurons, are generated during prenatal life, and in most cases they are not replaced by new neurons thereafter. Morphologically, the nervous system first appears about 18 days after conception, with the genesis of a neural plate. Functionally, it appears with the first sign of a reflex activity during the second prenatal month, when stimulation by touch of the upper lip evokes a withdrawal response of the head. Many reflexes of the head, trunk, and extremities can be elicited in the third month.

During its development the nervous system undergoes remarkable changes to attain its complex organization. In order to produce the estimated 1 trillion neurons present in the mature brain, an average of 2.5 million neurons must be generated per minute during the entire prenatal life. This includes the formation of neuronal circuits comprising 100 trillion synapses, as each potential neuron is ultimately connected with either a selected set of other neurons or specific targets such as sensory endings. Moreover, synaptic connections with other neurons are made at precise locations on the cell membranes of target neurons. The totality of these events is not thought to be the exclusive product of the genetic code, for there are simply not enough genes to account for such complexity. Rather, the differentiation and subsequent development of embryonic cells into mature neurons and glial cells are achieved by two sets of influences: (1) specific subsets of genes and (2) environmental stimuli from within and outside the embryo. Genetic influences are critical to the development of the nervous system in ordered and temporally timed sequences. Cell differentiation, for example, depends on a series of signals that regulate transcription, the process in which deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules give rise to ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules, which in turn express the genetic messages that control cellular activity. Environmental influences derived from the embryo itself include cellular signals that consist of diffusible molecular factors (see below Neuronal development). External environmental factors include nutrition, sensory experience, social interaction, and even learning. All of these are essential for the proper differentiation of individual neurons and for fine-tuning the details of synaptic connections. Thus, the nervous system requires continuous stimulation over an entire lifetime in order to sustain functional activity.

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			Introduction			Neuronal development

To cite this page:

• MLA style:
  "nervous system, human." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 4 Mar. 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110704>.
• APA style:
  nervous system, human. ( 2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved March 4, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110704

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human nervous system
Neuronal development

Encyclopædia Britannica Article

			Page 2 of 122

Prenatal and postnatal development of the human nervous system > Neuronal development

Development of the human embryo. Embryo of 18 days at disk or shield stage, (Ja) …
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In the second week of prenatal life, the rapidly growing blastocyst (the bundle of cells into which a fertilized ovum divides) flattens into what is called the embryonic disk. The embryonic disk soon acquires three layers: the ectoderm (outer layer), mesoderm (middle layer), and endoderm (inner layer). Within the mesoderm grows the notochord, an axial rod that serves as a temporary backbone. Both the mesoderm and notochord release a chemical that instructs and induces adjacent undifferentiated ectoderm cells to thicken along what will become the dorsal midline of the body, forming the neural plate. The neural plate is composed of neural precursor cells, known as neuroepithelial cells, which develop into the neural tube (see below Morphological development). Neuroepithelial cells then commence to divide, diversify, and give rise to immature neurons and neuroglia, which in turn migrate from the neural tube to their final location. Each neuron forms dendrites and an axon; axons elongate and form branches, the terminals of which form synaptic connections with a select set of target neurons or muscle fibres.

The remarkable events of this early development involve an orderly migration of billions of neurons, the growth of their axons (many of which extend widely throughout the brain), and the formation of thousands of synapses between individual axons and their target neurons. The migration and growth of neurons are dependent, at least in part, on chemical and physical influences. The growing tips of axons (called growth cones) apparently recognize and respond to various molecular signals, which guide axons and nerve branches to their appropriate targets and eliminate those that try to synapse with inappropriate targets. Once a synaptic connection has been established, a target cell releases a trophic factor (e.g., nerve growth factor) that is essential for the survival of the neuron synapsing with it. Physical guidance cues are involved in contact guidance, or the migration of immature neurons along a scaffold of glial fibres.

In some regions of the developing nervous system, synaptic contacts are not initially precise or stable and are followed later by an ordered reorganization, including the elimination of many cells and synapses. The instability of some synaptic connections persists until a so-called critical period is reached, prior to which environmental influences have a significant role in the proper differentiation of neurons and in fine-tuning many synaptic connections. Following the critical period, synaptic connections become stable and are unlikely to be altered by environmental influences. This suggests that certain skills and sensory activities can be influenced during development (including postnatal life), and for some intellectual skills this adaptability presumably persists into adulthood and late life.

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Introduction			Neuronal development			Morphological development

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human nervous system
Morphological development

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Prenatal and postnatal development of the human nervous system > Morphological development

Development of the human embryo. Embryo of 23 days showing (K) growth of the amnion, (L) …
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By 18 days after fertilization, the ectoderm of the embryonic disk thickens along what will become the dorsal midline of the body, forming the neural plate and, slightly later, the primordial eye, ear, and nose. The neural plate elongates, and its lateral edges rise and unite in the midline to form the neural tube, which will develop into the central nervous system. The neural tube detaches from the skin ectoderm and sinks beneath the surface. At this stage, groupings of ectodermal cells, called neural crests, develop as a column on each side of the neural tube. The cephalic (head) portion of the neural tube differentiates into the prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain), and rhombencephalon (hindbrain), and the caudal portion becomes the spinal cord. The neural crests develop into most of the elements (e.g., ganglia and nerves) of the peripheral nervous system. This stage is reached at the end of the first embryonic month.

The cells of the central nervous system originate from the ventricular zone of the neural tube—that is, the layer of neuroepithelial cells lining the central cavity of the tube. These cells differentiate and proliferate into neuroblasts, which are the precursors of neurons, and glioblasts, from which neuroglia develop. With a few exceptions, the neuroblasts, glioblasts, and their derived cells do not divide and multiply once they have migrated from the ventricular zone into the gray and white matter of the nervous system. Most neurons are generated before birth, although not all are fully differentiated. (One exception is the neurons of the olfactory nerve, which are generated continuously throughout life.) This effectively implies that an individual is born with a full complement of nerve cells.

By mid-fetal life the slender primordial brain of the neural-tube stage differentiates into a globular-shaped brain. Although fully mature size and shape are not obtained until puberty, the main outlines of the brain are recognizable by the end of the third fetal month. This early development is the product of several factors: the formation of three flexures (cephalic, pontine, and cervical); the differential enlargement of various regions, especially the cerebrum and the cerebellum; the massive growth of the cerebral hemispheres over the sides of the midbrain and of the cerebellum at the hindbrain; and the formations of convolutions (sulci and gyri) in the cerebral cortex and folia of the cerebellar cortex. The central and calcarine sulci are discernible by the fifth fetal month, and all major gyri and sulci are normally present by the seventh month. Many minor sulci and gyri appear after birth.

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Neuronal development			Morphological development			Postnatal changes

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human nervous system
Postnatal changes

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Prenatal and postnatal development of the human nervous system > Postnatal changes

The postnatal growth of the human brain is rapid and massive, especially during the first two years. By two years after birth, the size of the brain and the proportion of its parts are basically those of an adult. The typical brain of a full-term infant weighs 350 grams (12 ounces) at birth, 1,000 grams at the end of the first year, about 1,300 grams at puberty, and about 1,500 grams at adulthood. This increase is attributable mainly to the growth of preexisting neurons, new glial cells, and the myelination of axons. The trebling of weight during the first year (a growth rate unique to humans) may be an adaptation that is essential to the survival of humans as a species with a large brain. Birth occurs at a developmental stage when the infant is not so helpless as to be unable to survive, yet is small enough to be delivered out of the maternal pelvis. If the brain was much larger (enough, say, to support intelligent behaviour), normal delivery would not be possible.

Between the ages of 20 and 75, it is estimated that an average of 50,000 neurons atrophy or die each day. In a healthy person, this loss is roughly equal to 10 percent of the original neuronal complement. By the age of 75, the weight of the brain is reduced from its maximum at maturity by about one-tenth, the flow of blood through the brain by almost one-fifth, and the number of functional taste buds by about two-thirds. A loss of neurons does not necessarily imply a comparable loss of function; however, some loss may be compensated for by the formation from viable neurons of new branches of nerve fibres and by the formation of new synapses.

Charles R. Noback

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Morphological development			Postnatal changes			The central nervous system

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human nervous system
The central nervous system

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Anatomy of the human nervous system > The central nervous system

Lateral view of the right cerebral hemisphere of the human brain, shown in situ within the skull. A …
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The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, both derived from the embryonic neural tube. Both are surrounded by protective membranes called the meninges, and both float in a crystal-clear cerebrospinal fluid. The brain is encased in a bony vault, the neurocranium, while the cylindrical and elongated spinal cord lies in the vertebral canal, which is formed by successive vertebrae connected by dense ligaments.

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Postnatal changes			The central nervous system			The brain

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human nervous system
The brain

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Anatomy of the human nervous system > The central nervous system > The brain

Medial view of the left hemisphere of the human brain.
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The brain weighs about 1,500 grams (3 pounds) and constitutes about 2 percent of total body weight. It consists of three major divisions: (1) the massive paired hemispheres of the cerebrum, (2) the brainstem, consisting of the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, subthalamus, midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata, and (3) the cerebellum.

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The central nervous system			The brain			Cerebrum

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human nervous system
Cerebrum

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Anatomy of the human nervous system > The central nervous system > The brain > Cerebrum

Dissection of the left hemisphere of the brain, showing the internal capsule and middle cerebellar …
Original preparation by J. Klingler, Anatomical Museum, Basel, Switz.

The cerebrum, derived from the telencephalon, is the largest, uppermost portion of the brain. It is involved with sensory integration, control of voluntary movement, and higher intellectual functions, such as speech and abstract thought. The outer layer of the duplicate cerebral hemispheres is composed of a convoluted (wrinkled) outer layer of gray matter, called the cerebral cortex. Beneath the cerebral cortex is an inner core of white matter, which is composed of myelinated commissural nerve fibres connecting the cerebral hemispheres via the corpus callosum, and association fibres connecting different regions of a single hemisphere. Myelinated fibres projecting to and from the cerebral cortex form a concentrated fan-shaped band, known as the internal capsule. The internal capsule consists of an anterior limb and a larger posterior limb and is abruptly curved, with the apex directed toward the centre of the brain; the junction is called the genu. The cerebrum also contains groups of subcortical neuronal masses known as basal ganglia.

Upper surface of the brain, showing division of the cerebrum into two hemispheres by the …
From N. Gluhbegovic and T.H. Williams, The Human Brain: A Photographic Guide (1980), J.B. Lippincott Co./Harper & Row

The cerebral hemispheres are partially separated from each other by a deep groove called the longitudinal fissure. At the base of the longitudinal fissure lies a thick band of white matter called the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum provides a communication link between corresponding regions of the cerebral hemispheres.

Left lateral surface of the brain, showing various lobes of the hemisphere.
From N. Gluhbegovic and T.H. Williams, The Human Brain: A Photographic Guide (1980), J.B. Lippincott Co./Harper & Row

Each cerebral hemisphere supplies motor function to the opposite, or contralateral, side of the body from which it receives sensory input. In other words, the left hemisphere controls the right half of the body, and vice versa. Each hemisphere also receives impulses conveying the senses of touch and vision, largely from the contralateral half of the body, while auditory input comes from both sides. Pathways conveying the senses of smell and taste to the cerebral cortex are ipsilateral (that is, they do not cross to the opposite hemisphere).

In spite of this arrangement, the cerebral hemispheres are not functionally equal. In each individual, one hemisphere is dominant. The dominant hemisphere controls language, mathematical and analytical functions, and handedness. The nondominant hemisphere controls simple spatial concepts, recognition of faces, some auditory aspects, and emotion. (For further discussion of cerebral dominance, see below Functions of the human nervous system: Higher cerebral functions.)

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The brain			Cerebrum			Lobes of the cerebral cortex

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human nervous system
Lobes of the cerebral cortex

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Anatomy of the human nervous system > The central nervous system > The brain > Cerebrum > Lobes of the cerebral cortex

Lateral view of the right cerebral hemisphere of the human brain, shown in situ within the skull. A …
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The cerebral cortex is highly convoluted; the crest of a single convolution is known as a gyrus, and the fissure between two gyri is known as a sulcus. Sulci and gyri form a more or less constant pattern, on the basis of which the surface of each cerebral hemisphere is commonly divided into four lobes: (1) frontal, (2) parietal, (3) temporal, and (4) occipital. Two major sulci located on the lateral, or side, surface of each hemisphere distinguish these lobes. The central sulcus, or fissure of Rolando, separates the frontal and parietal lobes, and the deeper lateral sulcus, or fissure of Sylvius, forms the boundary between the temporal lobe and the frontal and parietal lobes.

Functional areas of the human brain.
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The frontal lobe, the largest of the cerebral lobes, lies rostral to the central sulcus (that is, toward the nose from the sulcus). One important structure in the frontal lobe is the precentral gyrus, which constitutes the primary motor region of the brain. When parts of the gyrus are electrically stimulated in concious patients (under local anesthesia), they produce localized movements on the opposite side of the body that are interpreted by the patients as voluntary. Injury to parts of the precentral gyrus results in paralysis on the contralateral half of the body. Parts of the inferior frontal lobe (close to the lateral sulcus) constitute the Broca area, a region involved with speech (see below Functions of the human nervous system: Language).

The parietal lobe, posterior to the central sulcus, is divided into three parts: (1) the postcentral gyrus, (2) the superior parietal lobule, and (3) the inferior parietal lobule. The postcentral gyrus receives sensory input from the contralateral half of the body. The sequential representation is the same as in the primary motor area, with sensations from the head being represented in inferior parts of the gyrus and impulses from the lower extremities being represented in superior portions. The superior parietal lobule, located caudal to (that is, below and behind) the postcentral gyrus, lies above the intraparietal sulcus. This lobule is regarded as an association cortex, an area that is not involved in either sensory or motor processing, although part of the superior parietal lobule may be concerned with motor function. The inferior parietal lobule (composed of the angular and supramarginal gyri) is a cortical region involved with the integration of multiple sensory signals.

In both the parietal and frontal lobes, each primary sensory or motor area is close to, or surrounded by, a smaller secondary area. The primary sensory area receives input only from the thalamus, while the secondary sensory area receives input from the thalamus, the primary sensory area, or both. The motor areas receive input from the thalamus as well as the sensory areas of the cerebral cortex.

The temporal lobe, inferior to the lateral sulcus, fills the middle fossa, or hollow area, of the skull. The outer surface of the temporal lobe is an association area made up of the superior, middle, and inferior temporal gyri. Near the margin of the lateral sulcus, two transverse temporal gyri constitute the primary auditory area of the brain. The sensation of hearing is represented here in a tonotopic fashion—that is, with different frequencies represented on different parts of the area. The transverse gyri are surrounded by a less finely tuned secondary auditory area. A medial, or inner, protrusion near the ventral surface of the temporal lobe, known as the uncus, constitutes a large part of the primary olfactory area.

The occipital lobe lies caudal to the parieto-occipital sulcus, which joins the calcarine sulcus in a Y-shaped formation. Cortex on both banks of the calcarine sulcus constitutes the primary visual area, which receives input from the contralateral visual field via the optic radiation. The visual field is represented near the calcarine sulcus in a retinotopic fashion—that is, with upper quadrants of the visual field laid out along the inferior bank of the sulcus and lower quadrants of the visual field represented on the upper bank. Central vision is represented mostly caudally and peripheral vision rostrally.

Not visible from the surface of the cerebrum is the insular, or central, lobe, an invaginated triangular area on the medial surface of the lateral sulcus; it can be seen in the intact brain only by separating the frontal and parietal lobes from the temporal lobe. The insular lobe is thought to be involved in sensory and motor visceral functions as well as taste perception.

The limbic lobe is a synthetic lobe located on the medial margin (or limbus) of the hemisphere. Composed of adjacent portions of the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes that surround the corpus callosum, the limbic lobe is involved with autonomic and related somatic behavioral activities. The limbic lobe receives input from thalamic nuclei that are connected with parts of the hypothalamus and with the hippocampal formation, a primitive cortical structure within the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle.

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Cerebrum			Lobes of the cerebral cortex			Cerebral ventricles

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